by Baron Von PWN on Thu Nov 26, 2009 4:18 pm
why not,,,,
Enver Hohxa and Albanian Stalinism
During Hoxha’s rule, Communism in Albania was represented as being a purely Stalinist system. Domestically and internationally Albania portrayed a strong Stalinist front, claiming Stalinism to be its policy determinant. Whether or not Albania’s policy was purely Stalinist or wether it was more determined by local conditions is up to conciderable debate. Enver Hoxha’s policies towards Ghegs run seemingly counter to strict Stalinist principles. Albania’s policies towards the Ghegs suggest prioritising local conditions over Stalinist ideology. Albanian policy in other areas was quite clearly Stalinist. Albanian Economic policy featured hallmarks of Stalinism; concentration on heavy industry, collectivization of agriculture and strict worker discipline. In foreign Policy Stalinist ideology was clearly their guiding principle. It was due to Enver Hoxja’s strong ideological commitment to Stalinism which led to Albania’s journey through world politics. Albania during Hoxja’s rule found itself allying and then breaking with Yugoslavia, The Soviet Union and China. Each new alliance and schism were justified in terms of Stalinism, and were all motivated by Albania’s allies perceived Ideological impurities. Despite questions raised by Albania’s policies towards the Ghegs, Albania’s policies can be best explained by it’s commitment to Stalinism.
Enver Hoxha was a long time admirer of Stalin and was firmly committed to Stalin's brand of Communism. Hoxha’s commitment was evident in his continuous praise of Stalin, even after Stalin had died. He allso declared that Albanian vowed to continue Stalin’s instructions as well as protect Stalin’s name from slander (Pipa 1990,pg 138). Hoxha’s policies were also very similar to Stalin’s. In 1967 he declared Albania the first officially atheist nation, and unleashed the full power of the state against religious institutions (Schwartz 2009). This is well in line with Stalin's thinking on religion, for during Stalin's rule there was extreme persecution of religious leaders and places of worship. In his memoirs Hoxha mentions an ocaision when he and Stalin were discussing religion in Albania. In the discution Stalin states his position that cahtolic preists “are old hands at espionage on a world scale”( Halliday 1986 pg.132), he also,unsuprisingly, supports Hohxa’s arrests of catholic clergy. Hoxha would not tolerate any kind of opposition to him, the party or the state. Hoxha carefully cleaned the party aparatus periodicly removing people who had held positions opposite to the governments current positon (Pano 1968.pg, 92). Hoxha like Stalin maintained a secret police force to ensure the ensure there were no breaks in ideological purity (Schwartz 2009). Like Stalin Hoxha was not afraid to purge the party when it suited him and was conducting purges before the party even had control of Albania (Schwartz 2009). Hoxha throughout his career displayed a similarity in actions to Stalin.
Albania at the time of Hoxha's rise to power was a wholly undeveloped nation, possessing very little in the way of industrial capacity and being principally agricultural. Albania’s economy was so underdeveloped that in 1938 it only generated a total of 9 kilowats per hour, in comparison greece produced 38 (O’Donnell 1999.pg.150). Albania's industrialization followed fundamentaly Stalinist lines and had as an important objective the placing of all economic levers into the control of the communist party (O’Donnell 1999.pg.149). The communist party much preferred heavy industry and gave it priority (Prifti 1978 pg.54). Despite considerable challenges the albanians were able to greatly improve the amount of industrialization. By 1984 the Albanians had mannaged to electrify their entire country and were also exporting electrical production as well as producing millions of tonnes of mineral products (Prifit 1978 pg.68). Economic life in Albania was all organized along Stalinist lines, which meant that all economic activity was planned from the center. It also meant little attention was paid to economic efficency, despite the goods being cheaply available elsewhere Albania created industries for the production of sugar and cotton (Pipa 1990. pg.19). Depsite being a late starter to the practice of collectivization Albanian acheived the highest portion of colectivized agriculture in europe, with 80% of the cultivated area being collective farms (Prifti 1978 pg.69). The control from the center allowed the Albanians to build industrial projects throughout the nation which served to break up traditional groups which the ruling communists opposed (Prifti 1978 pg.55). The Albanian the process of industrialization was very much the result of a Stalinist viewpoint which places greatest importance on heavy industry.
Hoxha viewed any deviation from his official line to be punishable by death. In fact he was so intolarant of any opposition that the Albanian constitution was writen in such a way so as to make any opposition to the state ilegal (O’donnell 1999.pg 132).x Hoxha ruthlessly persecuted the Ghegs in Northern Albania due to their use of an unofficial version of the Albanian language (Schwartz 2009). These campaings were often couched in the name of improving living standards and education, however the real purpose was to create a single Albanian identity which was not devided into Gheg and Tosk (Blumi 1997). Gheg tribes had their leadership purged or imprisoned, were made to forcibly collectivize and were sometimes broken up to reduce their influence (Fischer 1999). This mistreatment of ethnic groups which did not fit into the national norm was very consistent with Stalinist Russia. Further evidence was the purging of proponents of Albania's various allies over the years. Following the break up of alliances with Yugoslavia, the USSR and China, supporters of those alliances were purged lest they challenge the leadership (Crampton 2002). The purge following the Yugo-Soviet break was the most extensive. The purge was so pervasive that it caused the communist party to actualy shrink from one party congress to the next, this was despite a recruitment drive (Pano 1968 pg.94). Hoxha use of purges within the party apparatus was consistent with the connection with Stalin and did not change after the Khrushchev thaw.
The first test of Hoxha’s commitment to Stalinism was during the Tito-Stalin split. Hoxha’s response was to side strongly and unreservedly with Stalin (Crampton 2002 pg.157). Leading up o the split relations between Albania and Yugoslavia had been degrading due to an increasingly medelsom Yugoslavia, as well as Soviet opposition to the proposed balkan confederation (Pano 1968.pg.79). Behind the scenes Stalin had been giving Enver Hoxha advice on how to deal with the Yugoslavs. His advice often consisted of questioning the Yugoslavs motives in providing assistance, he essentialy told Hoxha their intention was to subjugate Albania (O’Donnell 1999.pg.21). Following the Yugoslavs ejection from the Cominterm, the Albanians very quickly renounced all trade deals they had signed with Yugoslavia. Albania also ordered all yougoslave specialist and diplomats to leave the country within 48 hours(Pano 1968.pg.83). Albanian propaganda then began to vicousiouly attack Tito, and Yugolsavia on everything from their unorthodoxy to their treatment of Albanian Kosovars (Schwartz 2009). Enver Hoxha then moved quickly against those who had support Yugoslavia and challenged his power. Following the purge of “Titoists” , which eliminated his political rivals, Enver Hoxha was the undisputed leaders of Albania. Despite close ties, the split with Yugoslavia was not an extremely taxing one. The Soviet Union was quick to become Albania's primary supporter in order to prevent a Yugoslav takeover. With the Soviets as their patron the Albanians would have little to worry about (Biberaj 1990. pg.21). Thanks to Soviet support Albania was able to open its first university, whereas before Albanian students went to Yugoslavia. They also received important technical advice on industrial matters. Albania's could be feasibly explained away as Albania simply being another Soviet puppet; however future events would show the depth of Hoxha’s ideological commitment.
Stalin's death caused a series of events which allowed Hoxha’s ideological orthodoxy to truly reveal itself. Following Stalin's death Kurshchev gave the infamous secret speech denouncing Stalin for his “excesses” . This speach bode ill for Stalin’s dictators in eastern europe. They had all been willing participants to get where they were, Krushchev’s speech threatened their positions, this was certainly true in the case of Albania. Hoxha had just emerged from a large scale purge of his party and remained somewhat unstable as a result. Reforms which would see the reduction of cult personality and increased economic rationalisation were passed by. While the rest of Eastern Europe underwent a relative thaw, Hoxha entrenched his power and maintained strict party discipline over Albania (Crampton 2002 pg 158). Hoxha’s consolidation of power was not only a measure to increase his power but also a measure designed to prepare Albania for an eventual break with the Soviet Union (Biberaj 1990 pg.23). To ensure support for the break with the Soviet Union Hoxha’s purge targeted individuals with the closest ties to Moscow (Blumi 1999).Following Khrushchev’s suggestions for Albania's economic direction, Hoxha declared soviet policy was attempting to turn Albania into a banana republic, soon after Albania formally distanced itself from the Soviet Union (Crampton 2002 pg. 158). Hoxha then used the split to his maximum advantage attacking political unorthodoxy within Albania and openly criticizing communist revisionism on the international stage (Blumi 1999). The Soviet Albanian split showed that Albania was sufficiently politically independent to be able to break away from the Soviet Union. This suggests that the earlier split with Yugoslavia was ideologically motivated rather than simple pulling on the Moscow line. In order to remain Stalinist Hoxha was prepared to suffer the severe economic consequences of breaking ranks with the USSR.
The break with the Soviet Union was due to Albanian desires to maintain the Stalinist status quo. As Hoxha himself put it “Our existing doubts about Soviet revisionists increased and deepened from day to day, because day by day Kruschev and company were acting in opposition to Marxism Lenninsm” (Hoxha 1980,pg.4),Krushchev challenged the status quo in many ways many of which were distressing to Albanian officials. Krushchev supported a policy of raprochment with Yugoslavia, even going so far as to visit Belgrade. Hoxha had been convinced by Stalin that Yugoslavia panned to annex and exploit Albania, as a result Krushchev’s raproachment was like a stab in the back (Biberaj 1990, pg 21). Krushchev also pressured albania to rehabilitate many of the prominent victims of the past purges. To Hoxha this was completly inaceptble, it would be admitting the commitment of a mistake as well as requiring a public about face (Biberaj 1990 pg.22). Albania had so thoroughly commited itself to Stalinism, that any criticism of Stalin would be critcism of itself and would seriously undermine its legitamacy. Meanwhile Krushchev had changed Soviet foreing policy to “peacefull coexistance” and talked about peacefull paths to communism. Albania was highly skeptical of the policy, due to its abandonment of a militant attitude towards capitalism (Griffith 1963, pg.32). In responce to Albania’s policies the Soviets began to cut support for Albania. During this time Albania still had one supporter, China. Due to the hightened tensions with the Soviets that Albania sought out the more ideologicly pure chinese.
In 1960 one of the most shocking events of the cold war occured the Sino-Soviet split. In Albania’s eyes this finaly provided an oppurtunity to fully disentangle itself from the Soviet Union. Albania’s drift away from the USA and towards China had been a work in progress but by 1959 Albania sidded with china considerably more often (Pano 1968.pg 135). Albania’s alliance with China was sought out in order to protect Albania’s Stalinist status quo, which had been underthreat from Soviet pressures. Following a diplomatic spat between the Chineese and the Soviet Union, Albanian media failed to report the Soviet side an extremly reblious move in the context of the cold war. Shortly after at a congress of european communist parties Albania criticised Yugoslave revisionism and refused to condem China (Pano 1968 pg, 136.). The consequences for Albania’s ideological puritanism were severe. The Soviet union and all other nations of the east bloc cut all economic aid and an economic boycot of Albania. The damage caused was considerable the majority of Albanian trade had been with the Soviet Union, they had also depended on east bloc aid to acomplish its five year plan (Hamm 1963.pg.42) . A seeming reward for Albania was massive economic aid from China which allowed Albania to continue its Stalinist system. As east european specialists left chinese ones streamed in, China also provided 123 million dollars in aid. While it was not completly equivalent to the East European aid it went a long way to making up the shortfall (Hamm 1963, pg 45). This aid was certain to have averted economic collapse in Albania, as well as foiling the Soviet boycott. Even with the aid from China Albania faced privations, and took measrues to increase its economic self sufficency. For several years Albania would take up a lonely crusade as china’s mouthpeice in the UN against the Soviet block decrying its moves away from Stalinism (Pipa 1990 pg.37).Albania’s decision to side with China during the Sino-Soviet split is a very clear example of Albania’s prioritisation of ideological maters over economic. In order to continue Stalinism Albania had risked economic ruin.
As a consequence of Albania’s alliance with China, The albanians felt it necesary to partake in a revolution of their own. Albania’s cultural revolution occured at roughly the same time as China’s however Albania's revolution was carefully orchestrated and aimed at removing Soviet influences (Blumi 1999). China’s cultural Revolution was also much more pervasive and had serious reprecutions for the nation and even its broader foreing policy. The period of China’s cultural revolution saw China withdraw from the world (O’Donnell, 1999 pg.69). This made Albania a valuable ally as they could be China’s mouthpeice on the world stage. China’s revolution was a chaotic affair with many actors all acting independently of central control. The Albanian cultural revolution was almost the exact opposite. In Albania the revolution was meant to retrench Stalinism, eradicate pottential opponents and ensure the party maintained total control (Biberaj 1990 pg.25). The practical goals of the cultural revolution was the elimination of Soviet influences within the culture, while at the same time being flatering to the Chinese. Evidence sugessting this can be found in the diffrences between the two revolutions. In china the revolution was undertaken due to a feeling of having gone astray from “Lenninism-Marxism” . In Albania it was used to ensure the continuation of current policies (Prifti 1978 pg.145). In both casses the revolutions were part of a distrust of intellectuals, who party members feared would become a new bourgeoisie and engender capitalist thoughts. In Albania authors and artists were sent into the countryside presumably to get back to their proletarian roots (Prifti 1978 pg.147). Also targeted was the education system, Soviet textbooks and theories were purged from the curriculum. The revolution also gave the party an oppurtunity to attack the ghegs in the north for “backwards cultural practices” (Prifti 1978 pg.148). The highly targetted nature of the Albanian revolution, gives it a consideralbe distinction from the more chaotic chinese one. The purpose of the Albanian revolution was also subtly difrent in that it was in support of current policies rather than a new way of thinking as in China.
A part of Albania’s cultural revolution was the declartation of Albania being an Atheistic state. The albanian communists like most other european communist parties had never been champions of religion. Enver Hoxha’s declaration that Albania was an atheist state was a significant departure from the communist norm. Till that point communist had not so obviously institutionalised an attack on religious freedoms. They had attacked religious freedoms and religious leaders but never declared so openly an attack on religion. During the 1970’s a concentrated attack on religious institutions was undertaken with many religious buildings either being destroyed or converted for other uses such as warehouses, flats, restaurants and more (Vickers 1999 pg.195). The diffrence between Albania and other communist states was that Hoxha had actualy banned religious practice, effectively out Stalinising Stalin(Vickers 1999 pg. 196). Albania’s efforts against religion reflected the Stalinist ideal of the state maintaining control of all aspects of the nation. The state wanted total control of Albanian thought and loyalty. In the eyes of the state Religion was a dangerous competitor for Albanian’s loyalty and thought and therefore had to be destroyed.
The Albanian efforts against organised religion began shortly after the comming into power of the communist party. They originaly campainged to divorce religious influence from state and educational affairs and make religious practice a purely private matter (Prifti 1978. pg151). State control of religious practice was much more insiduous than a simple seperation of religion from state and education maters. Approval from the state was required before the publication or preaching of any religious sermon. State approval was also required for the appointment of any religious leaders (Prifti 1978 pg.152). State persucution of religious leaders and institutions were used in conjuntion with an active campaing to discredit religion. The campaing attacked religious beleifs from all angles using arguments from “history, science, cultural antrhopology, biology, medicine and philosophy” (Prifti 1978 pg.155). A popular argument against religion was to associate it with outside forces and thus make nationalist appeals. Catholicism and even orthodoxy were linked with Italy, while islam was linked to the Ottomans. The following poem by Pashko Vaso Shkodrani, was often quoted to its sugestions that religious beleifes were an un-Albanian practice.“ Christian and Moslem priests have benumbed you, To divide you, and impovrish you! Look not to churches and to mosques,For the religion of the Albanian is Albanianism!” (Prifti 1978 pg.158).The state ensured that Albanian’s access to religious thought and arguments were strictly limited, while ensuring a glut of anti-theistic thought was readily available. Like in all other matters the state did all in it’s power to ensure it’s thoughts were the only thoughts Albanians had.
A little over a decade after the Sino- Soviet split the relationship between the Chinese and Albaniaans was begining to fray. By 1977 there were signs Albania was preparing to separate itself from China (Stern 1977). Albania had used Chinese help to improve its self sufficiency, which was actualy one of the intended purposes of chinese aid. Albania was able to test how self reliant it was in 1978 after the Sino-Albanian split (Backer 1982). The beginings of discontent between the two allies were due to China’s attempt to curry favor with Yugoslavia and Rumania. While Albania also engaged in some very limited rapraochment this was unenthusiastic and limited to restablishing diplomatic relations(Biberaj 1990 pg.26). The raproachment with Yugoslavia was made in the context of the Soviet invasion of Chekoslovakia and thus was acceptable to the Albanains. Unaceptable to the Albanians was President Nixon’s visit to China in ’72. The visit was planned without consultation with Albania (Bieraj 1990 pg.26). The Chinese also took the radical position that the Soviet Union was the principle threat to their security. The Albanians viewed the USA as an equal threat and refused to acknowledge any difrence between the two. In Albania’s mind China had betrayed “Marxism- Lenninism”, Albania now knew it had to disentangle itself from their ally. What followed were a serries of measures intended to reduce chinese influence as well as tighten belts (Biberaj 1990, pg.27). Following Mao’s death relations with China quicly deteriorated Hoxha failed to endorse the post Mao leadership and lauched an agressive anti Chinese propaganda campaing and their alliance was soon in tatters (O’Donnel,1999, pg.72). How the economy performed was secondary to Hoxha, his primary concern was continued progress down a Stalinist path. Which nescesitaded total party control of society, China’s opening up to the world was now threatening this monopoly and as a result China had to go.
Following the break with China, Albania found there were no longer any powerful Stalinist nations with which to ally its self. Albania faced a choice of either opening up and following china in its rapprochement of the west or it could isolate itself from the world. Hoxha decided the proper Marxist-Lenninist thing to do would be to embrace political isolation (Biberaj 1990 pg.27). In the time leading up to Albania's break with China Hoxha had set off a purge of the upper echelons of political, economic and military leadership in order to clear out supporters of China. Hoxha also initiated a series of cutbacks designed to reduce the shock of the coming break with China (Biberaj 1990 pg.27). Once Albania was free of powerfull political allies, it pursued a policy of seeking good relations with its neighbhors (Prifti 1978 pg.248). However it did not want relations to be too close, Hohxa had concrete bunkers built all allong the Albanian borders to make it clear how much they trusted outsiders (Glenny 1999 pg.560).Unlike its friendly attitude towards it neighbors Albania would continue to be hostile towards the Soviets and the Americans, ingoring any aproachment by them (Prifty 1978 pg.249).Albania continued to denounce both the United States and the Soviet Union during this period, the offical Albanian position being it was the only true Marxist-Lenninist nation in the world. After China Albanian leadership decided that engaging in strong political alliances with a single benefactor were not in the intrests of Albania. As a result Albania persued a policy of good local relations and criticism of the world powers.
Allong with political isolation the Albanians pursued a program of economic isolation. government propaganda began to tout isolationism as one of their main economic goals and as necesary for continued independence. In 1976 the constitution was amended to ban the government from seeking foreign aid or creating joint companies, in a state run economy this effectively banned foreign participation in the Albanian economy (Biberaj 1990 pg.28). The new constitution was also intended to “guarantee that Albania will allways follow the correct Marxist-Lennist path to the acheivement of Communism” (O’Donnel 1990, pg.83).Free of political alliances Albania had to be self reliant economicly. One of the means in supported by the Albanian government was an austarity program, which encouraged Albanians to be thrifty. In justification of the Albanian strategy of self reliance officials said it was necesary for the continued independence of Albania indeed its very existence (O’donnel 1990, pg.87). To an extent the Albanians were successfull at acheiving a measure of self reliance. They managed to maintain a trade surplus of about 10 million dollars and they also managed to ballance their buget posting a minor surplus in 1984 (O’Donnel 1990,pg.88). Allong the increase in bilateral relations with its neighbors Albania also began trading with them, in order to diversify its trading partners and by 1980 it was trading with COMECON, the west and Yugoslavia (O’Donnel 1990, pg 90). While it did improve its outside trade Albania remained a very isolated country, also Albanian asutarity was very taxing on its people with foodstuffs facing rationing (O’Donnel 1990 pg.92). The policy of economic self reliance in Albania was the logical step to take within the Stalinist world view. Albania did not wish to alter its political ideology in order to make a new powerfull ally, as a result it struck out on its own confident someday the world would change.
Stalinism remained the leading path of reasoning within Albania for as long as Hoxha was alive. The Stalinist nature of Albania is significant in explaining why Hoxha’s regime acted the way it did. Throughout his life as the leader of Albania Enver Hoxha consistently acted to maintain absolute power in the party and his hands.The maintenance of absolute party control as nescesary in order to guide the proletariate towards Communism is an essential aspect of Stalinism. When it appears Enver Hoxha uses the state to continue his personal power and that of the party, it is because he is. Such behavior is acceptable within a Stalinist framework as the maintenance of absolute party control is the overiding concern. Hohxa’s rash rejections of the various alliances he found himself in within a Stalinist perspective are reasonable, due to the danger these provided to the suppremacy of the Albanian communist party. Domestically Hoxha's polices were largely similar to those of Stalin both leaders cracked down on minorities which did not conform to their parties notions of socialist society . They both used their administrative positions to gather power rather than the strength of their theoretical abilities. Hoxha saw purges as a useful means for maintaining power as well as a means to erase opponents. The path directed for Albania by Enver Hoxha was a remarkebly stalinist one, politicaly, economicly and socialy.
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